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Forest resources: use and over exploitation, deforestation and case studies –timber extraction, mining, dams and their effect on tribal people
The Ecological Services provided by forests are
regulation of hydrological cycle, soil & water conservation, flood control,
carbon sequestration, fresh air generation, climate stabilization, biodiversity
conservation and amelioration of overall environment including urban and
semi-urban amenity, eco-tourism etc.
Forests provides fuel, fodder, fertilizer
and sustenance resources India has a thriving non-wood forest products
industry, which produces latex, gums, resins, essential oils, flavours,
fragrances and aroma chemicals, incense sticks, handicrafts, thatching
materials and medicinal plants. About 60% of non-wood forest products
production is consumed locally. About 50% of the total revenue from the
forestry industry in India is in non-wood forest products category. In
2002, non-wood forest products were a source of significant supplemental income
to over 400 million people in India, mostly rural
Per capita availability of forests in India is 0.06 ha which
is much lower than the world average of 0.64 ha. As
of 2010, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates
India's forest cover to be about 68 million hectares, or 22% of the
country's area and by 2015 FAO Global assessment observers
the forest cover increasing to 70.68 million hectares occupying 23.8% of the
total land area of the country. The 2013 Forest Survey of India states its
forest cover increased to 69.8 million hectares by 2012, per satellite
measurements; this represents an increase of 5,871 square kilometers of forest
cover in 2 years.
The world forest and forest soil can store more
than one trillion tones of carbon. Twice the amount found floating free in the
atmosphere. According to Global forest Resource Assessment Report, 2010 of FAO
the total forest carbon stock of the world is 652 Giga tonnes (161.8 t ha-1)
out of this the forest biomass contains 289 Giga tonnes (71.6 t ha-1)
the dead organic matter contains 72 Giga tonnes (17.8 t ha-1) and
forest soil organic carbon contains 293 Giga tonnes (72.3 t ha-1) of
carbon.
Forest are overexploited when they are logged at a rate faster
than reforestation
takes place. Reforestation
competes with other land uses such as food production, livestock grazing, and
living space for further economic growth. Historically utilization of forest
products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human
societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today,
developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood
pulp for paper. In developing countries almost three billion people rely
on wood for heating and cooking. Short-term economic gains made
by conversion of forest to agriculture, or overexploitation of wood
products, typically leads to loss of long-term income andlong term biological
productivity. West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and many other
regions have experienced lower revenue because of overexploitation and the
consequent declining timber harvests
WILDLIFE
RESOURCES It is a great natural resource comprising of about 75,000 species of
animals that include about 800 species of mammals, 2000 of birds, 420 of reptile,
2000 of fish, 50000 of insects, 4000 of mollusks and innumerable species of
other invertebrates. During the period of approximately 2000 years, the world
had lost by way of extinction about 160 mammals and 88 birds through man‘s
interference with nature. According to international union for conservation of
nature and natural resources (IUCN), 25,000 plant species are threatened with
extinction. Based on history of distribution, decline in number of individuals,
nature of habitat and the potential value of species, IUCN has classified the
plant and animal species into four groups. Endangered (E) species: represented
by fewer individuals because of unfavourable environmental or human factors. If
the same factors continue to operate as before these species would become
extinct soon. Eg. Indian rhinoceros Asiatic lion and the great Indian bustard.
Some of the endangered species of mammals, amphibians, reptiles and birds.
Vulnerable (V) species: these are the species have sufficient number of
individuals in their habitats. However, in near future, they may represent the
category of endangered species, if unfavourable conditions in the environment
continue to operation. Rare (R) species: the species (or taxa) small world
population those are not at present endangered or vulnerable, but are at risk.
Threatened (T) species: These are species that are declining at a faster rate
though their population is high.
Use and Over Exploitation
A forest is a biotic community
predominantly of trees, shrubs and other woody vegetation, usually with a
closed canopy. This invaluable renewable natural resource is beneficial to man
in many ways.
The
direct benefits from forests are:
(a)
Fuel Wood:
Wood is used as a source of energy for
cooking purpose and for keeping warm.
(b)
Timber:
Wood is used for making furniture,
tool-handles, railway sleepers, matches, ploughs, bridges, boats etc.
(c)
Bamboos:
These are used for matting, flooring,
baskets, ropes, rafts, cots etc.
(d)
Food:
Fruits,
leaves, roots and tubers of plants and meat of forest animals form the food of
forest tribes.
(e)
Shelter:
Mosses, ferns, insects, birds,
reptiles, mammals and micro-organisms are provided shelter by forests.
(f)
Paper:
Wood and Bamboo pulp are used for
manufacturing paper (Newsprint, stationery, packing paper, sanitary paper)
(g)
Rayon:
Bamboo
and wood are used in the manufacture of rayon (yarns, artificial silk-fibres)
(h)
Forest Products:
Tannins,
gums, drugs, spices, insecticides, waxes, honey, horns, musk, ivory, hides etc.
are all provided by the flora and fauna of forests.
Deforestation
Deforestation
is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The term does
not include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or
pines. Deforestation has resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to
four-fifths of their pre-agricultural area.
Indigenous
forests now cover 21% of the earth’s land surface. The World Resources
Institute regards deforestation as one of the world’s most pressing land-use problems.
The difference between forests and woodlands is that whereas in a forest the
crowns of individual trees touch to form a single canopy, in woodland, trees
STOW far apart, so that the canopy is open.
Of
great concern is the rate at which deforestation is occurring. Currently, 12
million hectares of forests are cleared annually. Almost all of this
deforestation occurs in the moist forests and open woodlands of the tropics.
At this rate all
moist tropical forest could be lost by the year 2050, except for isolated areas
in Amazonia, the Zaire basin, as well as a few protected areas within reserves
and parks. Some countries such as Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Costa Rica, and Sri
Lanka are likely to lose all their tropical forests by the year 2030 if no
conservation steps are taken.
The
destruction of forests due to unscrupulous and indiscriminate felling of trees
has lead to an overall deterioration of our environment and is posing a serious
threat to the quality of “life in future. Forest area in world has dwindled
from 7,000 million hectares (year 1900) to 2S90 million hectares (year 1975).
It is expected to further reduce to 2300 million hectares by year 2030 AD if
the present trend of deforestation is not reversed.
Large
scale deforestation has many far-reaching consequences:
(a)
Habitat destruction of wild animals (tree-using animals are deprived of food
and shelter.)
(b)
Increased soil erosion due to reduction of vegetation cover.
(c)
Reduction in the oxygen liberated by plants through photosynthesis.
(d)
Increase in pollution due to burning of wood and due to reduction in Car-
bon-dioxide fixation by plants.
(e)
Decrease in availability of forest products.
(f)
Loss of cultural diversity
(g)
Loss of Biodiversity
(h)
Scarcity of fuel wood and deterioration in economy and quality of life of people
residing near forests.
(i)
Lowering of the water table due to more run-off and thereby increased use of
the underground water increases the frequency of droughts.
(j) Rise in Carbon
dioxide level has resulted in increased thermal level of earth which in turn
results in melting of ice caps and glaciers and consequent flooding of coastal
areas.
Dams and their
effects on forests and tribal people
The
greatest social cost of big dam is the widespread displacement of local people.
It is estimated that the number of people affected directly or indirectly by
all big irrigation projects in India over the past 50 years can be as high as
20 millions. The Hirakud dam, one of the
largest dams executed in fifties, has displaced more than 20,000 people residing in 250 villages.
The forest areas are home to deep-rooted tribal
traditions and ages long culture which members of their community have tried to
protect with their blood. The forest provides the tribal population and other
communities with shelter, food, raw materials, household equipments, tools,
medicines, fodder for cattle, cultural items like ornaments and religious items
etc.
Their life and economy is so intimately connected
with the survival of the forests that denying them the access to the green land
will mean to threaten their very existence. Millions of tribes and their
societies have been exterminated in the name of industrialization and
globalization. How the mainstream societies have initiated their gradual
destruction is a harsh tale of the majoritarian tyranny. Usually factories and
industries are set up in the closer to forest areas where the population is not
dense, to provide for the fullest utilization of a large area of land, cheap
raw materials etc. By means of a newly set up factory, labourers and workers
satisfying various needs of the factory move to the place around the factory,
setting up a township. While they gradually outnumber the tribal population, it
leads to the eviction of the tribes as they are dislocated from their own
homes. The phenomenon that facilitates the process is that they do not have any
legal claim over the forest or in other words, their right to livelihood is not
sealed by legality of terms, documents and papers.
Indonesia Case Study
Indonesia is located in Southeast Asia, with
around 17,000 islands, and has many diverse forests there. In the 1900s,
Indonesia used to have 84% of forests covering their land. However, in the
1970s, deforestation kept accelerating. From 170 million hectares of
forest cover in 1900 to 98 million hectares of forests left in the 20th
century, Indonesia has been rapidly losing much of its forests. Indonesia is
ranked as one of the countries with the highest rate of deforestation in
the world.
Around 1970, Indonesia used valuable resources from forests to benefit
their economy. The country was developing a wood-processing industry. Since the
1980s, Indonesia has increased their production of pulp and paper industry by
700%. It is the 9th largest pulp producer, and 11th largest paper
producer. Their success was because they used resources found in forests.
However, because the demand kept increasing, getting the resources from the
forests were getting more and more difficult. Because of this, cutting down
forests kept increasing, resulting in the high rate of deforestation. Also,
there are many plantations in Indonesia dedicated to palm oil and mining.
Illegal logging is a big contributor to deforestation in Indonesia.
However, millions of people depend on that in order to receive income.
Illegal logging is estimated to represent 73% of log production in Indonesia.
It exists there because of political corruption. When President Suharto was
ruling there for 30 years, forest resources were divided among families and
business partners. This led to organized crime syndicates who
were assisted by the military or police.
In addition, palm oil is a factor of deforestation. When
planted, it can produce fruit for up to 30 years, and provides jobs for many
people. Indonesia is a top supplier of this oil. It is used for cooking,
cosmetics and biofuel. However, it still causes the end of many forests there.
In 2010, Indonesia agreed to a 2 year deforestation
moratorium that started in 2011. Norway agreed to help preserve
Indonesia's forests giving them up to 1 billion dollars if they could prove
themselves.
Impact
Deforestation
threatens ecosystems and biodiversity in Indonesia. Carbon emissions come out
from deforestation, and is held accountable for 10%-30% of global carbon
emissions. This can lead to climate change. Climate change can lead to
serious, environmental changes. There will be a low water supply and
more pollution. Deforestation also affects biodiversity. Biodiversity refers to
different organisms in an area. When people cut down all these forests, they
are also cutting down the homes to many animals living there. The orangutan is
an animal that is at a high risk of becoming extinct. Already, this type of
animal is already endangered. Over the last decade, there has been a 50%
decline of the number of orangutans and rhinos in Indonesia. Because of human
activity (logging, illegal logging, conversion of forests into plantations, etc.), the orangutan has been faced with
the problem of survival.
Additionally, soil erosion is an effect of deforestation. Soil
erosion is prevented by the roots of trees because they keep the topsoil in
place. The roots of the trees hold the topsoil to the bedrock which helps
prevent wind and water from blowing it away. Yet, because of deforestation, the
roots of trees die and cannot hold the soil it could have held before. Because
the soil is by itself, it is vulnerable to different substances. When soil is
mixed with water, it creates mud which can lead to mudslides. In addition,
loose soil cannot absorb as much water because there are no roots to absorb it
which can increase flooding
India case
study
Role
of the British
In recent
history large-scale destruction of the forests began with the British who
wished to utilize the timber and the natural resources for the expansion and
continuation of the empire. An idea of the commercial onslaught on India's
forests by the British has been pieced. Quoting from a number of sources, they
show how the British navy's need for durable timber was increasingly being met
from India from teak Tectona grandis forests. Vast tracks of forest were
chopped to create the vast railway network that criss crosses India today. The
main aim was the fast, cheap and efficient transport of inexpensive raw
materials to the ports from the hinterlands of the country for export to
Britain's industries and to ensure the fast movement of security forces to maintain
the hold over the empire. For instance, between 1869 and 1885, over 6,500,000
deodar Cedrus deodara sleepers were extracted from the Yamuna Valley forests in
the Himalayas, which in turn was necessitated because the supply of teak and
sal Shorea robusta from peninsular India was getting exhausted. Wood for
railway sleepers and as fuel for powering the locomotives facilitated the
expansion of both the railways and the British Empire. The other major cause of
deforestation immediately after independence was agricultural expansion, often
state-sponsored. Much of the rich moist deciduous forests of the humid Terai
region in northern Uttar Pradesh for example were cleared to provide land to
immigrants from the newly created Pakistan. Most of the woodland once covering
the Indo-Gangetic plains was also gradually converted to fields or grazing
lands. Indeed between 1951 and 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India
(1987), over 26.20 lakh hectares (26,200 sq.kms ) of forest was converted for
agriculture purposes all over India
Present scenario
Environmental historians hold the opinion that the
large-scale destruction of the forests in India is rooted in the commercially
oriented forest use and ownership policies of the British government and these
have continued in their essence for several years even in post independence
India. In more recent times it is the new policies and programs of development;
rapid industrialization, urbanization and growing consumerism that has resulted
in the wide-scale destruction of the forests. In certain parts of the country;
particularly the rainforest regions of the north eastern states bordering China
and Burma and the remote islands of the Andaman and Nicobar, a lot of the
forests have been fed into the plywood mills. Other parts of India have
witnessed a spurt of large projects from big dams and thermal power projects to
huge mines.
What has been equally bad if not worse is that
these projects very insensitively alienated the communities living in the
forests, depriving them of their basic sources of survival, forcing them to
move away; making them refugees if their own land. With this destruction of the
stake in and responsibility for the well being of the forests the people who
have lived in and tended the forests for generations were forced to participate
in and share the blame for destruction of the forests. This process continues
even today in various forms in many parts of the country, resulting in the
rapid decline in forest cover. As mentioned earlier efforts are on to tackle
these at various levels.
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